Beyond Resistance: Non-Violence, Pashtun Identity, and State Suppression

By The Weeping Writer

The Pathan Unarmed, book by Mukulika Banerjee talks about history of the Khudai Khidmatgar (KK), a non-violent movement that emerged from the Northwest Frontier Province (now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) under the leadership of Abdul Ghaffar Khan. Mukulika Banerjee encapsulates how the movement allowed Pashtuns to redefine their “cultural repertoire” to practice the ideology of non-violence. Her anthropological and historical approach makes this book an invaluable contribution to understanding a movement that has been largely erased from mainstream historical narratives. However, the suppression of the Khudai Khidmatgar by both the British and the Pakistani state highlights a recurring pattern: post-colonial Pashtun-led movements that challenge state narratives such as the Pashtun Tahaffuz Movement (PTM) continue to face scrutiny, harassment, and repression.

While often categorized as an anti-colonial struggle, the Khudai Khidmatgar movement transcended political resistance. It was a revolutionary social movement advocating for women’s rights, the redistribution of power, and religious tolerance. In challenging patriarchal and feudalistic structures embedded within Pashtun culture, it sought to redefine Pashtunwali (the way of the Pashtuns), replacing traditional notions of honor and revenge with non-violence and collective progress. Banerjee effectively captures this ideological shift by examining the motivations of Khudai Khidmatgar’s supporters and their vision for a transformed Pashtun society. The author notes that the the movement allowed the concept of jihad to be reshaped, “martyrdom was promoted in place of conquest and self-restraint in place of revenge and customary terms concerning honour and sanctuary were subtly redefined or given a different emphasis.” Abdul Ghaffar Khan known as “Badsha Khan” was different from other leaders as he was referred as “faqir” in a “positive sense” due to his modest nature. Banerjee highlights how the Khudai Khidmatgar leader implored the Pashtuns to renounce violence “that comes of hate” and to adopt an “alternative” way for challenging the colonial rule that is embracing a peaceful practice embedded in “virtues of patience and self-restraint.” Banerjee specifically mentions how the influence of Khudai Khidmatgar movement was more popular in the “Settled Districts” than the “Tribal Areas,” the latter was the “frontline of the Raj.” And so the British employed every means including ‘intense surveillance and bombing’ to avoid political stability; hence it suggests that the ideology of non-violence was not preached in the tribal region due to the British control.

During the colonial rule, this movement initiated a large-scale campaign including, picketing liquor shops and government schools and carried out raids on government offices and law courts to stage sit ins. These were deliberate strategies aimed at dismantling colonial authority and reshaping Pashtun identity.  They sought to rid society of “social evils” and challenge British control. The boycott of government schools and student strikes rejected colonial education, promoting institutions that emphasized “self-respect and local identity.” Their sit-ins at government offices and courts disrupted colonial governance, demonstrating the power of peaceful resistance. Ultimately, the movement aimed to dismantle British authority while fostering a disciplined, self-reliant Pashtun society.

The British responded with beating, arrests, and imprisonment. Banerjee claims how Muslim League came into existence to downplay the Khudai Khidmatgar movement as one informant in her book comments. ‘The way Badshah Khan started the KK movement, the British then started the Muslim League (whose members were closely affiliated with the British).’ The Muslim League criticized the close links of KK with the Congress which often led to propaganda that Badshah Khan’s close relationship with the Congress “endangered Islam” as he was seen sitting with Hindu Congress members. As Banerjee highlights that Muslim League’s popularity in the NWFP was ‘modest’ and the aim of the KK movement was the uplifting of the ‘material and political status of the Pathans through enhanced self-rule and cultural autonomy; which could be better achieved within the ‘quasi-federal structure’ instead of a ‘centralised nation’ as was envisioned for Pakistan. The repression of Khudai Khidmatgar did not end with British rule. After Partition, the newly formed Pakistani state perceived the movement as a threat. The fact that Khudai Khidmatgar aligned with Indian nationalism rather than communal separatism made it suspect in the eyes of the state. Its ties to the Congress Party, which opposed the creation of Pakistan, further deepened hostility. Consequently, the Pakistani government launched a systematic crackdown: Abdul Ghaffar Khan was imprisoned, supporters were falsely charged. In 1948, the KK organization was ‘banned,’ the leaders of the movement were ‘imprisoned’ and labelled ‘friends of Gandhi and Nehru’ and ‘traitors to Pakistan. This pattern of state suppression bears striking similarities to the persecution faced by contemporary Pashtun movements such as PTM.

The echoes of Khudai Khidmatgar’s suppression are evident today in the state’s treatment of today’s rise of nationalist movements, as we see with the case of  Pashtun Tahaffuz Movement (PTM). Like Khudai Khidmatgar, PTM advocates for non-violence, yet it is framed as a national security threat. PTM has consistently raised its voice against enforced disappearances, the forced displacement of Pashtun civilians, and the military’s appropriation of natural resources. Just as the British labeled Khudai Khidmatgar’s red uniforms as a sign of communist affiliation, the Pakistani state views PTM’s peaceful activism with suspicion, resorting to judicial harassment, arbitrary detentions, and extrajudicial killings. The Pashtun National Jirga of 2024, a gathering meant to discuss these injustices, was marred by police harassment, further reinforcing the idea that Pashtun-led movements are met with state repression, regardless of their commitment to peaceful resistance.

More recently, political actors such as Mohsin Dawar, Ali Wazir, and other leaders of the National Democratic Movement (NDM) have faced constant intimidation and violent attacks for advocating the same principles of self-rule and cultural autonomy. Wazir, a PTM leader and elected Member of Parliament, has been repeatedly arrested on dubious charges, illustrating the continued suppression of Pashtun representation in mainstream politics. Additionally, there have been repeated warnings by PTM and NDM about the resurgence of militancy in the region, pointing to the state’s role in the re-merging of armed groups that had previously been expelled through military operations. These demands for demilitarization and justice continue to be met with hostility.

The movement’s commitment to non-violence was a radical departure from traditional Pashtun norms rather than a continuation of them. While Banerjee successfully documents how Ghaffar Khan’s philosophy was shaped by Gandhian principles, her attempt to root it in Pashtunwali oversimplifies the complexities of Pashtun identity and cultural transformation.

Pathan Unarmed is not just a historical account; it is also an anthropological study of how non-violent resistance emerged within a community often stereotyped as violent and warlike. Banerjee successfully challenges Orientalist assumptions about Pashtuns and highlights the transformative potential of social movements. However, the book’s relevance extends beyond history—its themes of state suppression, non-violent resistance, and the struggle for justice remain deeply relevant in contemporary Pakistan. Banerjee’s work serves as a reminder that while history is often rewritten by those in power, the voices of those who resist—whether Khudai Khidmatgar in the past or PTM in the present—continue to demand justice.

The writer is a keen political observer with a deep interest in socio-political dynamics.